QUICK NOTE ON CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF FAUNA AND FLORA (CITES)

In order to regulate international trade in endangered species of Wild Life, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna and flora (CITES) was signed in March 1973, which was initially called as Washington Convention. The Government of India signed the Convention in July 1976, and the same got ratified in October 1976. The Director, Wild Life Preservation has been designated as the CITES Management Authority for India. CITES has three Appendices I, II and III, where in the international trade of the species listed in Appendix I is done only with CITES Permits of both exporting and importing countries. Trade of species listed in Appendix II is monitored through CITES permits issued by exporting countries. Appendix III provides Appendix I status for only proposing countries.

The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) was set up in 2007, which is acting as the CITES Enforcement Agency in India to combat international illegal trade in wildlife. The Wildlife Institute of India, Botanical Survey of India, Zoological Survey of India, CMFRI and IFGTB are designated as Scientific Institutes of CITES in India. Soon, an amendment to the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 is also proposed for integrating the provisions of CITES in the national law of Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 for effective implementation of the Convention. The enforcement of the provisions of CITES is carried out by the Regional Deputy Directors, Wild Life Crime Control Bureau, who have also been designated as the Assistant CITES Management Authority for India. Apart from the Regional Deputy Directors, the Customs Authorities, State Forest Departments are also involved in the enforcement of the Convention. 

An amendment to the Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 has been proposed for integrating the provisions of CITES in the national law for effective implementation of the Convention. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has also constituted a CITES Cell on 10th September 2010 to assist the Government of India in CITES implementation. India has taken several initiatives in recent years at national level to build capacity for better CITES implementation in the country.

The 17^th meeting of Conference of Parties of CITES is going to be held from 24^th September to 5^th October 2016 at Johannesburg, South Africa.  On 27^th April 2016, India submitted the following proposals for amending the Appendices of CITES. The below proposals were  discussed and were accepted by 17^th COP:

a.      India along with USA has submitted a proposal for up listing Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES;

b.  Supported the proposals of USA and Viet Nam for up listing of Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES;

c.    Supported the proposals of USA and Viet Nam for up listing of Sunda Pangolin (Manis javanica) from Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES;

d.      Submitted a proposal along with USA for listing Chambered nautilus (Nautilus spp) on Appendix II of CITES;

e.      Supported the proposal of Maldives for listing Silky shark (Carcharhinus falciformis) on Appendix II of CITES; and

f.    Supported the proposal of Sri Lanka for listing of three Thresher Sharks Bigeye Thresher Sharks (Alopias superciliosus), Common Thresher Shark (Alopias vulpinus) and Pelagic Thresher Shark (Alopias pelagicus) on Appendix II of CITES.

Destiny of Pangolins in the World

All around the globe there are eight pangolins (Manis) species out of which four species below to Africa and four species belong to Asia. The Asiatic species are Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicudata), China Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica) and Philippine pangolin (Manis culionensis). The four African species are Giant pangolin (Manis gigantea), Ground pangolin (Manis temmincki), Tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis), Long-tailed pangolin (Manis tetradactyla). In India only two species were recorded, Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicudata) and China Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) species which are included in the Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 thereby according them highest degree of protection. 

All pangolins have a similar morphology and have a number of adaptions related to their diet of ants and termites including: a conical shaped head, strong claws for breaking apart insect nests, small eyes and thick eyelids, a long, sticky tongue for consuming their prey (Challender et al. 2014), and a muscular stomach with keratinous spines used for mashing their prey, as they have no teeth (Heath 1995). Manis crassicaudata is a medium-sized mammal (weight: 4.7 kg; length: 89 cm), that is covered with 11-13 rows of keratinous scales on the dorsal side (Heath 1995).

The scales are used to protect themselves from predators (Spearman 1967). A threatened pangolin will roll into a ball with the hard, sharp-edged scales on the outside; females will protect their young at the centre of the ball. While able to deter most predators (even lions), this otherwise highly effective anatomy and behaviour unfortunately makes it easy for humans to pick up and transport pangolins. Asian pangolin species have hairs between their scales, while African species do not (Challender et al. 2014). 

Pangolins are also well protected by national legislation in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and China. New intelligence gathered suggests the involvement of tiger hunters shifting towards poaching pangolins because of the increasing price in the international market. With traders targeting areas as wide as the interior peninsular regions, the reach of pangolin poaching network seems to have spread across the country with inter-state organized poaching nexuses involved.

Although protected from hunting by national law in each range State, Manis crassicaudata is poached for local use; meat is used as a source of protein and medicine as well as for ritual purposes; oil is extracted from the fat and the brain is used for medicinal purposes; the scales are used whole or in powdered form as medicine and are used to make curios, jewellery, and “bullet-proof vests”; and skins are used to make leather goods (Baillie et al. 2014, Katuwal et al. 2013, Mahmood et al. 2012, Misra and Hanfee 2000).

In the last CITES 65th meeting (SC65, Geneva, July 2014), the Standing Committee established an inter-sessional Working Group on pangolins with the European Union as Chair, and with the following membership: Cameroon, China, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Namibia, the Philippines, South Africa, Uganda, the United States of America, Zimbabwe, Animal Welfare Institute, Annamiticus, Born Free Foundation, Chinese Association of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Conservation International, Humane Society International, International Fund for Animal Welfare, IUCN, Lewis and Clark College, Species Survival Network, TRAFFIC, Wildlife Conservation Society, Wildlife Protection Society of India, WWF and the Zoological Society of London.

All countries strongly supports for up-listing of Pangolin species to Appendix I of CITES and recommends the range states for the conservation of pangolin through awareness campaigns for behavioural change of the communities who are dependent on pangolins for medicinal purpose. During the side-events on Pangolin in the 66^th meeting of Standing Committee of CITES, India strongly opposed captive breeding of Pangolin as it is not showing positive results. However, due to its dwindling populations due to illegal trade and slow breeding rate, India supported the breeding of Pangolins for the conservation purposes only subject to scientific trials on successful breeding results. 

There is no evidence of successful breeding of pangolins born at the facility to the F2 or second generation. Indeed, over the past 150 years, more than 100 zoos or organizations have attempted to maintain pangolins but most captive pangolins died within six months; captive breeding of pangolins is still difficult, and there are no reports of successful reproduction to the second generation (Hua et al. 2015).

Way Forward after listing of all 8 Pangolins in Appendix I of CITES in 17th CoP of CITES:

• Conducting population surveys to assess the distribution, range, areas of concentration and population size which could assist in designing targeted intervention/ conservation measures

• Fractured research on pangolins gives little information on the population of the species, making it impossible to have an accurate assessment of the impact of trade.

• Creating awareness about the need for conservation of pangolins among stakeholders for undertaking participatory interventions.

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF RED SANDERS WOOD

It is observed that the red sanders grown on the shale type of subsoil, at an altitude of 750 meters above mean sea level and in semi-arid climatic conditions gives a distinctive wavy grain margin and the wood pieces with the wavy grain margin are graded as "A" grade. Red sanders with wavy grain margin fetch a higher price than the non-wavy wood.

The products and timber derived from the Red Sanders tree is highly priced and the price is increasing exponentially. Commercially, there are two types of Red Sanders trees- quality trees and non-quality trees. Quality trees have wavy grain structure in the wood whereas in a non-quality tree it is absent. Until a tree attains an age of 25 years, it would not be known whether the tree belongs to a quality tree or a non-quality tree category. The price determinant depends on this natural factor. Crocodile scaled bark is formed when the heartwood is completely matured.

The heartwood can accumulate various elements and rare earth elements like strontium cadmium, selenium, zinc, copper and uranium. Red Sanders wood has an important insoluble or sparingly soluble red wood dye. It contains 16% of the pigment santalin (santalic acid) a major colouring matter which was first isolated in a crude form in 1833. It is being used as a textile dye and has five colouring components ranging from violet to orange in colour but is popular for providing red colour (Gulrajani et al., 2002; Siva, 2003; Ferreira et al., 2004). In European medicine, the red dye is used as a colouring agent while the French furniture makers used it for dyeing, polishing and varnishing during 1660 to 1885 (New, 1981). In USA, it is approved as a food dye for alcoholic beverages and approved as a food dye within Europe and is classified as a spice extract rather than food colourant (Mulliken and Crofton, 2008). Pterostilbene a methyl ester of resveratrol (3,5-dimethoxy-4'-hydroxy-trans-stilbene) was first isolated from Red Sanders (Sheshadri, 1972) and has wide range of promising pharmacological properties (Schmidlin et al., 2008).

Arunakumar et al. (2011) have extensively reviewed the phytochemical and pharmacological uses of P. santalinus. An interesting study on biogeochemistry reveals that heartwood and leaf of Red Sanders have the ability for elemental association and accumulation of various elements including rare earth elements. The accumulation of various elements is higher in heartwood and the range of strontium accumulation varied from 750 to 3,500 ppm. Some of the other elements accumulated in the heartwood are cadmium (5 to 28 ppm),zinc (50 to 6,000 ppm), copper (105 to 1,025 ppm). Among the various rare earth elements studied, the heartwood and leaves contained an average concentration of 1.22 and 0.03 ppm of Uranium, respectively and the accumulation was higher in P. santalinus compared to P. marsupium and P. dalbergioides (Raju and Rao, 1998; Raju and Raju, 2000; Raju and Srinivasalu, 2008). Siddhiraju (2013) reported that as P. santalinus has a narrow geographic and geological distribution; it can be used as a stratigraphic guide to recognize a group within the Kadapah Super group.

Presently grading of Red sanders in India would prescribes the following general standards for the Red Sanders logs from commercial perspective:

·        Logs to be dressed nearly up to heartwood

·        Straight or nearly straight

·        Minimum length of 75 Cms

·        Top end girth of 36 cms or above.

The logs are further graded into A, B, C or Non-Grade according to the following characteristics.

A.    A-Grade - Sound or nearly sound with few or no defects;

B.     B Grade - Semi-sound A grade logs with more defects; A grade logs with bends and Logs sound or semi-sound with some defects;

C.     C-Grade - Long and shallow wavy grain or straight grain; Logs sound or semi-sound with some or no defects; Un-sound but utilizable A-grade logs with many defects and Un-sound but utilizable B-grade logs with many defects; and

D.    Non Grade - Unutilized logs of all grades. 

Acoustic comparison of the logs is when hit by a small hammer produce sounds of varying acoustic quality depending on the grade which in turn depends on the quality and arrangement of wood fibers. The group of sounds starts with Grade A followed by B & C, in the accompanying sound clip. Observe the change in pitch and resonance from A to C.

TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USES:

 It is an astringent and a cooling agent and is used in several skincare preparations. It is used in the treatment of pimples, acne, wrinkles etc. It is also used internally in chronic bronchitis, gonorrhoea and gleet, chronic cystitis with benzoic and boric acids.

Much used as a perfume for different purposes. The wood is used for making fancy articles and is much carved. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine as an anti-septic, wound healing agent and anti-acne treatment. It has been used in Ayurvedic medicine as an anti-septic, wound healing agent and anti-acne treatment. A paste of the wood is used as a cooling external application for inflammations and headache. A decoction of fruit is used as an astringent tonic in chronic dysentery.

The species is, also, heavily exploited for its medicinal use as a ‘cure’ of vision, skin problems, and inflammation, particularly of the forehead. The powder of Red Sanders wood is also topically used in treating hemorrhage and bleeding piles. Use of Red Sanders extract is known in the treatment of skin diseases, leprosy, ulcers and mental aberrations.

In India, apart from limited domestic use as timber, the heartwood of the plant is used in the treatment of diabetes; the anti-diabetic constituent is ‘pterostilbene’

RED SANDERS UNIQUNESS:

Chemical Compounds Identified

• The red wood yields a natural dye santalin.
• Ether, alkalis, and three other crystalline principles Santal, Pterocarpin, and Homopterocarpin, small quantity of tannin, probably kino-tannic acid, has also been found in the wood.
• Heart wood is known to possess isoflavone glucosidessavinin, calocedrin, triterpene, isoflavone glucosides, lignan viz., savinin and calocedrin and triterpene.   

Economic importance

• The plant is renowned for its characteristic timber of exquisite colour, beauty and superlative technical qualities and ranks among finest luxury in Japan.
• The red wood yields a natural dye santalin, which is used in colouring pharmaceutical preparations and foodstuffs.

Modern Medicinal usage:

• A decoction of the fruit is used as an astringent tonic in chronic dysentery. An infusion of the wood is used in the control of diabetes.
• The wood of Red Sanders is considered astringent, tonic and diaphoretic.
• A paste of the wood is used to give cooling effect, applied externally for inflammations and head-ache.
• It is useful in bilious affections and skin diseases.
• The wood is bitter in taste with a flavour, anthelmintic, alexiteric useful in vomiting, thirst, eye diseases, cures diseases of the blood, vata, and kapha , mental aberrations and ulcers.
• The wood is in treating headache, skin diseases, fever, boils, scorpion sting and to improve sight.
• The wood and fruit is used in treating diaphoretics, bilious infections and chronic dysentery.
• Heart wood is known to possess isoflavone glucosidessavinin, calocedrin and triterpene.
• The lignin isolated from the heartwood is known to inhibit tumour necrosis factor, alpha production and T-cell proliferation.
• The heart wood contains isoflavone glucosides and two anti-tumour lignans, viz., savinin and calocedrin.·        A triterpene is reported from the callus of stem cuttings.
• Ethanol extract of stem bark at 0.25 g/kg body weight was reported to possess anti-hyperglycaemic activity.
• The stem barks extract was shown to contain maximum activity against Enterobacter aerogenes, Alcaligenes faecalis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, and Staphylococcus aureus.
• The leaf extract showed maximum activity against Escherichia coli, Alcaligenes faecalis, Enterobacter aerogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
• The ethanol extracts of Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. (Fabaceae) at dose of 50-250 mg/kg showed gastroprotective effect in reserpine-induced, pyloric-ligated experimental rats.

Industrial Usage:

•  Products of Red Sanders are considered for aphrodisiac usage in pharmaceuticals industries.
• Red sanders are believed to be used as a coolant in nuclear reactors, which is perhaps why the South East Asian nations are a preferred destination for the wood.
• Through biogeochemical research (Raju and Raju 2000), traces of uranium (1.22 ppm) and thorium (0.14 ppm) were observed in Red Sanders heartwood and leaves. Although this concentration is not very high, it is still indicative for expanding research avenues for alternative nuclear fuel sources.

CONSERVATION STATUS OF RED SANDER:

Pterocarpus santalinus was classified as endangered in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants. The Government of India considered both legal and illegal trade to threaten P. santalinus and proposed it for inclusion in CITES Appendix II, with its restricted distribution and slow rotational rate - increasing the level of threat. The species was included in CITES Appendix II in 1995.

Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) is listed under Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) allows trade in wild specimens only if NDF (Non Detrimental Findings) are given by a specific authority and if the CITES Management Authority certifies that export of the species would not cause depletion of the natural wild stock.

India is a signatory to the CITES convention and therefore trade of Red Sanders from the wild including seized/confiscated material was be allowed earlier as NDF by a scientific body for the species has not been conducted in India. However, India has done NDF study and share with CITES in 2012 and the trade ban was lifted by CITES.

The major threat to the existing population of Red Sanders is caused by illicit logging and smuggling of wood, due to its special demand as a high quality timber, which has a characteristic red colour. Illegal trade in Red Sanders involves a complex nexus of smugglers and individuals who are allegedly involved in other forms of criminal activities. In a recent investigation into its trade, Andhra Pradesh Police Department observed that the smugglers involved in trading Red Sanders from Seshachalam hills are also active in the surreptitious trade of narcotics and other crimes (Umashanker 2015).

LEGAL TRADE OF RED SANDERS:

In year 2012, the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) submitted an NDF report to CITES and requested for a one-time permission to export confiscated wood logs. Apart from this demand, CITES also agreed to a request of permission from the Indian Government for exporting 310 metric tonnes of Red Sanders every year from private plantations in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and 11806 MTs export quota as one time exemption was given for confiscated Red Sanders.

Red Sanders and EXIM Policy: Incorporating the provisions of CITES into India Laws as envisaged by the CITES Convention, under the FTDR (Foreign Trade Development and Regulation Act’ 1992), a notification No. 2(Re-98)/1997-2002 has been issued, which prohibits the export of plants, plant portions and their derivatives and extracts from the wild.

In year 2014, the Director General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) permitted the state of Andhra Pradesh to export 8584 metric tonnes of confiscated Red Sanders logs, out of which approximately 2715.91 metric tonnes was auctioned till date and the remaining logs were expected to be auctioned in October 2015 and 2016. Currently, under phase III, around 2868 metric tons are kept for auction. Pterocarpus santalinus is included in this notification of DGFT for exporting in log form subject to CITES as there is less domestic demand.

Existing quota of CITES as per website of CITES is Zero for all specimens from the wild with a Note: India will authorize the export of specimens of any type, from 310 metric tonnes of wood per year from artificially propagated source (Source "A") and a one-time export of specimens of any type, from 9,090.09 metric tonnes of wood from confiscated or seized source (Source "I").

A close look at the recent global auctions held in India for the sale of the red sanders statuses that 90% bidders are from China, Hong Kong or Japan and 90% of all the exports that took place from India till date has a destination of China and Hong Kong. Only rare cases are UAE and Germany were observed. Approximately 60 Days to 90 Days is required for processing the export of Red sanders from India to importing destination.